The Meiji Restoration, which began in 1868, marked a pivotal transformation in Japan’s history, steering the nation away from centuries of feudal rule toward modernity and industrialization. This period of rapid change not only reshaped Japan’s internal structures but also had a profound impact on its foreign policy, marking the beginning of Japan’s emergence as a global power. Several key factors during this time led to significant shifts in how Japan engaged with the world.
1. The End of Isolationism
Prior to the Meiji Restoration, Japan had followed a policy of isolationism under the Tokugawa Shogunate, which lasted from the early 17th century until the mid-19th century. The Tokugawa regime had tightly controlled foreign relations, only allowing limited interaction with the Dutch and the Chinese through the port of Nagasaki. This policy of “sakoku” (closed country) helped Japan avoid the conflicts and colonization that many other parts of Asia faced. However, by the mid-19th century, Western powers, particularly the United States and European countries, began to exert pressure on Japan to open its ports to international trade. The arrival of Commodore Matthew Perry’s fleet in 1853, and the subsequent signing of the Treaty of Kanagawa in 1854, marked the end of Japan’s self-imposed isolation.
The Meiji Restoration directly addressed Japan’s need to modernize in response to the increasing external pressures. By abolishing the feudal system and centralizing power under the emperor, Japan was able to reform its military, economy, and society. One of the first priorities of the new government was to engage with Western powers, not only to establish trade but also to learn from them. The rapid modernization that followed included the establishment of a modern navy and army, Western-style educational institutions, and industrial infrastructure, all of which would later influence Japan’s foreign policy.
2. The Adoption of Western Models
The Meiji leaders understood that Japan needed to strengthen its international position in an increasingly competitive and imperialistic world. They began to adopt Western models in various fields, including governance, military strategy, and economic systems. In terms of foreign policy, this meant moving away from isolationism and establishing Japan as an equal among the Western powers.
The government sent numerous officials and students abroad to study Western technologies, military tactics, and industrial methods. By absorbing these ideas and technologies, Japan was able to build up its own military and economy at a rapid pace. The creation of a modern navy, modeled on the British fleet, and a modern army, based on the German system, became central to Japan’s foreign policy strategy.
3. The Pursuit of Imperialism
One of the most significant shifts in Japan’s foreign policy after the Meiji Restoration was its embrace of imperialism. Having seen the ways in which Western powers had expanded their influence through colonization, Japan decided to follow suit in order to secure its own place in the international order.
In the 1870s and 1880s, Japan’s foreign policy began to focus on expanding its territorial influence in Asia. In 1895, Japan defeated China in the First Sino-Japanese War, which resulted in the acquisition of Taiwan and influence over Korea. The victory was a key moment in Japan’s emergence as a major power in East Asia, signaling to the world that Japan could no longer be ignored.
This aggressive expansion continued in the early 20th century with Japan’s involvement in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). Japan’s victory over Russia, a European power, was a stunning achievement and solidified its reputation as a military force to be reckoned with. Following the war, Japan gained control of Korea (annexed in 1910), as well as rights to parts of Manchuria, further solidifying its imperial ambitions.
4. The Shift Toward Global Diplomacy
As Japan grew stronger, its foreign policy also evolved toward greater involvement in global diplomacy. At the turn of the 20th century, Japan sought to establish itself as an influential player on the world stage. The Meiji government began to participate in international agreements and treaties, including the Treaty of Portsmouth (1905) that ended the Russo-Japanese War, and the 1907 Hague Conventions, which provided guidelines for the conduct of war.
Japan’s increasing power and influence were also reflected in its membership in international organizations, such as the League of Nations (which it joined in 1920) and later the United Nations after World War II. Although Japan’s increasing militarism in the 1930s and 1940s led to its eventual downfall in the wake of World War II, the foundations laid during the Meiji period were essential in shaping the future of Japanese foreign policy.
5. The Evolution of the Japanese Military
The creation of a modern, Western-style military was a central aspect of the Meiji Restoration, and it played a crucial role in shaping Japan’s foreign policy. The military not only served as a tool for internal control and the maintenance of order but also as a means to project power beyond Japan’s borders.
The Meiji government recognized that military strength would be crucial in ensuring Japan’s sovereignty in a world dominated by Western imperial powers. The military, particularly the navy, played a key role in Japan’s expansionist foreign policy. The naval victories in the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War demonstrated Japan’s newfound ability to challenge larger, established powers.
The Meiji-era military reforms also set the stage for Japan’s aggressive foreign policy during the 1930s and 1940s, although the militarization of Japan would ultimately have disastrous consequences. Nevertheless, the focus on military modernization during the Meiji period established the foundation for Japan’s military prowess.
6. Economic Development and Trade
The Meiji Restoration brought with it sweeping economic reforms that laid the groundwork for Japan’s foreign policy of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Japan’s leaders understood that economic power was key to military power and global influence. The government implemented policies that encouraged industrialization, including the construction of railways, factories, and ports, as well as the development of a banking system.
Japan’s rapidly expanding economy also meant it needed access to raw materials and markets, which drove its imperialist ventures. In particular, the need for natural resources such as coal, oil, and iron prompted Japan to look toward Korea, Manchuria, and other parts of East Asia for expansion. Trade also became a key component of Japan’s foreign policy, with the establishment of trade relationships with Western powers as well as neighboring countries.
7. The Shift from Defensive to Offensive Posture
During the early years of the Meiji period, Japan’s foreign policy was largely defensive. The government sought to prevent foreign encroachment on Japanese sovereignty and to ensure the country’s survival in an increasingly hostile world. However, as Japan’s power and influence grew, its foreign policy shifted from a defensive posture to a more offensive one, with an emphasis on territorial expansion and military conquest.
This shift was particularly evident in the late 19th and early 20th centuries when Japan began to assert itself more aggressively in East Asia. The annexation of Korea, the victory in the Russo-Japanese War, and the subsequent establishment of a Japanese empire signified a significant departure from the cautious foreign policy of the early Meiji period. Japan’s new aggressive stance was fueled by a desire to match the imperial ambitions of Western powers and secure its own place in the international hierarchy.
Conclusion
The Meiji Restoration was a transformative period in Japanese history that not only reshaped the internal structures of the country but also fundamentally altered its foreign policy. The Restoration set Japan on a path toward modernization, imperialism, and global diplomacy, allowing it to emerge as a major world power by the early 20th century. While the expansionist foreign policy that began during the Meiji period ultimately led to Japan’s involvement in World War II, the foundations for Japan’s rise as a global power were firmly established during this time. The influence of the Meiji Restoration continues to shape Japan’s foreign policy to this day, with the legacy of modernization, imperialism, and military power still influencing its approach to international relations.